PulseAudio list-sinks missing ALSA Devices Announcing the arrival of Valued Associate #679:...
Is there a documented rationale why the House Ways and Means chairman can demand tax info?
What are the pros and cons of Aerospike nosecones?
Why is "Consequences inflicted." not a sentence?
Is a manifold-with-boundary with given interior and non-empty boundary essentially unique?
Is it true that "carbohydrates are of no use for the basal metabolic need"?
What is a Meta algorithm?
Models of set theory where not every set can be linearly ordered
Disable hyphenation for an entire paragraph
What LEGO pieces have "real-world" functionality?
What do you call a plan that's an alternative plan in case your initial plan fails?
How do I stop a creek from eroding my steep embankment?
Is high blood pressure ever a symptom attributable solely to dehydration?
ListPlot join points by nearest neighbor rather than order
Is there a service that would inform me whenever a new direct route is scheduled from a given airport?
How widely used is the term Treppenwitz? Is it something that most Germans know?
How does cp -a work
Does surprise arrest existing movement?
Why are there no cargo aircraft with "flying wing" design?
The logistics of corpse disposal
Java 8 stream max() function argument type Comparator vs Comparable
Is 1 ppb equal to 1 μg/kg?
How can I fade player when goes inside or outside of the area?
Output the ŋarâþ crîþ alphabet song without using (m)any letters
Sorting numerically
PulseAudio list-sinks missing ALSA Devices
Announcing the arrival of Valued Associate #679: Cesar Manara
Planned maintenance scheduled April 17/18, 2019 at 00:00UTC (8:00pm US/Eastern)
2019 Community Moderator Election Results
Why I closed the “Why is Kali so hard” questionSound not working when both the sound card and HDMI use the Intel HDA driver. How to exchange their device loading order?How do I make Wheezy see my sound card?How to enable both built-in audio output and HDMI audio output with PulseAudio?How do I set the output port on my audio card?ALSA - Traktor Audio 2 - How to split front and rear stereo channels / How to debug dmixlow volume in ALSA sound7.1 audio with AVR : only Front Left and Right outputSound in Linux - ALSA driver prevent to play music in more than 1 programIs there a linux mint driver for the sound card of the iMac 2017?PulseAudio not recognizing Intel HDA after upgrading to Debian testing (Buster)
.everyoneloves__top-leaderboard:empty,.everyoneloves__mid-leaderboard:empty,.everyoneloves__bot-mid-leaderboard:empty{ margin-bottom:0;
}
I'm attempting to switch at runtime between two ALSA devices on the same ALSA card:
>>> [blake@e530 ~]$ aplay -l
**** List of PLAYBACK Hardware Devices ****
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 0: CX20590 Analog [CX20590 Analog]
Subdevices: 0/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 3: HDMI 0 [HDMI 0]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
Device 0 is my laptop's onboard sound, Device 3 is its HDMI output.
After installing PulseAudio server (hopefull for more granular runtime management options) only Device 0 appears in my pacmd list-sinks:
flags: HARDWARE HW_MUTE_CTRL HW_VOLUME_CTRL DECIBEL_VOLUME LATENCY FLAT_VOLUME DYNAMIC_LATENCY
state: IDLE
suspend cause:
priority: 9959
volume: front-left: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB, front-right: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB
balance 0.00
base volume: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB
volume steps: 65537
muted: no
current latency: 20.40 ms
max request: 3 KiB
max rewind: 344 KiB
monitor source: 0
sample spec: s16le 2ch 44100Hz
channel map: front-left,front-right
Stereo
used by: 0
linked by: 1
configured latency: 20.00 ms; range is 0.50 .. 2000.00 ms
card: 0 <alsa_card.pci-0000_00_1b.0>
module: 6
properties:
alsa.resolution_bits = "16"
device.api = "alsa"
device.class = "sound"
alsa.class = "generic"
alsa.subclass = "generic-mix"
alsa.name = "CX20590 Analog"
alsa.id = "CX20590 Analog"
alsa.subdevice = "0"
alsa.subdevice_name = "subdevice #0"
alsa.device = "0"
alsa.card = "0"
Is there a way to achieve this output switching behavior at runtime using either PulseAudio or native ALSA?
arch-linux audio alsa pulseaudio
add a comment |
I'm attempting to switch at runtime between two ALSA devices on the same ALSA card:
>>> [blake@e530 ~]$ aplay -l
**** List of PLAYBACK Hardware Devices ****
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 0: CX20590 Analog [CX20590 Analog]
Subdevices: 0/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 3: HDMI 0 [HDMI 0]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
Device 0 is my laptop's onboard sound, Device 3 is its HDMI output.
After installing PulseAudio server (hopefull for more granular runtime management options) only Device 0 appears in my pacmd list-sinks:
flags: HARDWARE HW_MUTE_CTRL HW_VOLUME_CTRL DECIBEL_VOLUME LATENCY FLAT_VOLUME DYNAMIC_LATENCY
state: IDLE
suspend cause:
priority: 9959
volume: front-left: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB, front-right: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB
balance 0.00
base volume: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB
volume steps: 65537
muted: no
current latency: 20.40 ms
max request: 3 KiB
max rewind: 344 KiB
monitor source: 0
sample spec: s16le 2ch 44100Hz
channel map: front-left,front-right
Stereo
used by: 0
linked by: 1
configured latency: 20.00 ms; range is 0.50 .. 2000.00 ms
card: 0 <alsa_card.pci-0000_00_1b.0>
module: 6
properties:
alsa.resolution_bits = "16"
device.api = "alsa"
device.class = "sound"
alsa.class = "generic"
alsa.subclass = "generic-mix"
alsa.name = "CX20590 Analog"
alsa.id = "CX20590 Analog"
alsa.subdevice = "0"
alsa.subdevice_name = "subdevice #0"
alsa.device = "0"
alsa.card = "0"
Is there a way to achieve this output switching behavior at runtime using either PulseAudio or native ALSA?
arch-linux audio alsa pulseaudio
add a comment |
I'm attempting to switch at runtime between two ALSA devices on the same ALSA card:
>>> [blake@e530 ~]$ aplay -l
**** List of PLAYBACK Hardware Devices ****
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 0: CX20590 Analog [CX20590 Analog]
Subdevices: 0/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 3: HDMI 0 [HDMI 0]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
Device 0 is my laptop's onboard sound, Device 3 is its HDMI output.
After installing PulseAudio server (hopefull for more granular runtime management options) only Device 0 appears in my pacmd list-sinks:
flags: HARDWARE HW_MUTE_CTRL HW_VOLUME_CTRL DECIBEL_VOLUME LATENCY FLAT_VOLUME DYNAMIC_LATENCY
state: IDLE
suspend cause:
priority: 9959
volume: front-left: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB, front-right: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB
balance 0.00
base volume: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB
volume steps: 65537
muted: no
current latency: 20.40 ms
max request: 3 KiB
max rewind: 344 KiB
monitor source: 0
sample spec: s16le 2ch 44100Hz
channel map: front-left,front-right
Stereo
used by: 0
linked by: 1
configured latency: 20.00 ms; range is 0.50 .. 2000.00 ms
card: 0 <alsa_card.pci-0000_00_1b.0>
module: 6
properties:
alsa.resolution_bits = "16"
device.api = "alsa"
device.class = "sound"
alsa.class = "generic"
alsa.subclass = "generic-mix"
alsa.name = "CX20590 Analog"
alsa.id = "CX20590 Analog"
alsa.subdevice = "0"
alsa.subdevice_name = "subdevice #0"
alsa.device = "0"
alsa.card = "0"
Is there a way to achieve this output switching behavior at runtime using either PulseAudio or native ALSA?
arch-linux audio alsa pulseaudio
I'm attempting to switch at runtime between two ALSA devices on the same ALSA card:
>>> [blake@e530 ~]$ aplay -l
**** List of PLAYBACK Hardware Devices ****
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 0: CX20590 Analog [CX20590 Analog]
Subdevices: 0/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 3: HDMI 0 [HDMI 0]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
Device 0 is my laptop's onboard sound, Device 3 is its HDMI output.
After installing PulseAudio server (hopefull for more granular runtime management options) only Device 0 appears in my pacmd list-sinks:
flags: HARDWARE HW_MUTE_CTRL HW_VOLUME_CTRL DECIBEL_VOLUME LATENCY FLAT_VOLUME DYNAMIC_LATENCY
state: IDLE
suspend cause:
priority: 9959
volume: front-left: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB, front-right: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB
balance 0.00
base volume: 65536 / 100% / 0.00 dB
volume steps: 65537
muted: no
current latency: 20.40 ms
max request: 3 KiB
max rewind: 344 KiB
monitor source: 0
sample spec: s16le 2ch 44100Hz
channel map: front-left,front-right
Stereo
used by: 0
linked by: 1
configured latency: 20.00 ms; range is 0.50 .. 2000.00 ms
card: 0 <alsa_card.pci-0000_00_1b.0>
module: 6
properties:
alsa.resolution_bits = "16"
device.api = "alsa"
device.class = "sound"
alsa.class = "generic"
alsa.subclass = "generic-mix"
alsa.name = "CX20590 Analog"
alsa.id = "CX20590 Analog"
alsa.subdevice = "0"
alsa.subdevice_name = "subdevice #0"
alsa.device = "0"
alsa.card = "0"
Is there a way to achieve this output switching behavior at runtime using either PulseAudio or native ALSA?
arch-linux audio alsa pulseaudio
arch-linux audio alsa pulseaudio
edited 1 hour ago
Community♦
1
1
asked Aug 14 '15 at 7:04
voteblakevoteblake
63
63
add a comment |
add a comment |
1 Answer
1
active
oldest
votes
My problem was similar, I have multiple devices listed in aplay -l but PulseAudio only listed my speakers pacmd list-sinks; it missed my headset.
**** List of PLAYBACK Hardware Devices ****
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 0: ALC898 Analog [ALC898 Analog]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 1: ALC898 Digital [ALC898 Digital]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 3: HDMI 0 [HDMI 0]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 7: HDMI 1 [HDMI 1]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 8: HDMI 2 [HDMI 2]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 9: HDMI 3 [HDMI 3]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 10: HDMI 4 [HDMI 4]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 1: A20 [Astro A20], device 0: USB Audio [USB Audio]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 1: A20 [Astro A20], device 1: USB Audio [USB Audio #1]
Subdevices: 0/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
For this output I ran the following to add my headset to PulseAudio. Then I used pasystray to select the headset as the default sink and I opened an application for music. Everything worked fine after that.
pactl load-module module-alsa-sink device=hw:1,1
Then to make this persist across reboots I added load-module module-alsa-sink device=hw:1,1 to /etc/pulse/default.pa.
New contributor
Ninty0n3 is a new contributor to this site. Take care in asking for clarification, commenting, and answering.
Check out our Code of Conduct.
add a comment |
Your Answer
StackExchange.ready(function() {
var channelOptions = {
tags: "".split(" "),
id: "106"
};
initTagRenderer("".split(" "), "".split(" "), channelOptions);
StackExchange.using("externalEditor", function() {
// Have to fire editor after snippets, if snippets enabled
if (StackExchange.settings.snippets.snippetsEnabled) {
StackExchange.using("snippets", function() {
createEditor();
});
}
else {
createEditor();
}
});
function createEditor() {
StackExchange.prepareEditor({
heartbeatType: 'answer',
autoActivateHeartbeat: false,
convertImagesToLinks: false,
noModals: true,
showLowRepImageUploadWarning: true,
reputationToPostImages: null,
bindNavPrevention: true,
postfix: "",
imageUploader: {
brandingHtml: "Powered by u003ca class="icon-imgur-white" href="https://imgur.com/"u003eu003c/au003e",
contentPolicyHtml: "User contributions licensed under u003ca href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/"u003ecc by-sa 3.0 with attribution requiredu003c/au003e u003ca href="https://stackoverflow.com/legal/content-policy"u003e(content policy)u003c/au003e",
allowUrls: true
},
onDemand: true,
discardSelector: ".discard-answer"
,immediatelyShowMarkdownHelp:true
});
}
});
Sign up or log in
StackExchange.ready(function () {
StackExchange.helpers.onClickDraftSave('#login-link');
});
Sign up using Google
Sign up using Facebook
Sign up using Email and Password
Post as a guest
Required, but never shown
StackExchange.ready(
function () {
StackExchange.openid.initPostLogin('.new-post-login', 'https%3a%2f%2funix.stackexchange.com%2fquestions%2f223147%2fpulseaudio-list-sinks-missing-alsa-devices%23new-answer', 'question_page');
}
);
Post as a guest
Required, but never shown
1 Answer
1
active
oldest
votes
1 Answer
1
active
oldest
votes
active
oldest
votes
active
oldest
votes
My problem was similar, I have multiple devices listed in aplay -l but PulseAudio only listed my speakers pacmd list-sinks; it missed my headset.
**** List of PLAYBACK Hardware Devices ****
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 0: ALC898 Analog [ALC898 Analog]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 1: ALC898 Digital [ALC898 Digital]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 3: HDMI 0 [HDMI 0]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 7: HDMI 1 [HDMI 1]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 8: HDMI 2 [HDMI 2]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 9: HDMI 3 [HDMI 3]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 10: HDMI 4 [HDMI 4]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 1: A20 [Astro A20], device 0: USB Audio [USB Audio]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 1: A20 [Astro A20], device 1: USB Audio [USB Audio #1]
Subdevices: 0/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
For this output I ran the following to add my headset to PulseAudio. Then I used pasystray to select the headset as the default sink and I opened an application for music. Everything worked fine after that.
pactl load-module module-alsa-sink device=hw:1,1
Then to make this persist across reboots I added load-module module-alsa-sink device=hw:1,1 to /etc/pulse/default.pa.
New contributor
Ninty0n3 is a new contributor to this site. Take care in asking for clarification, commenting, and answering.
Check out our Code of Conduct.
add a comment |
My problem was similar, I have multiple devices listed in aplay -l but PulseAudio only listed my speakers pacmd list-sinks; it missed my headset.
**** List of PLAYBACK Hardware Devices ****
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 0: ALC898 Analog [ALC898 Analog]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 1: ALC898 Digital [ALC898 Digital]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 3: HDMI 0 [HDMI 0]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 7: HDMI 1 [HDMI 1]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 8: HDMI 2 [HDMI 2]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 9: HDMI 3 [HDMI 3]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 10: HDMI 4 [HDMI 4]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 1: A20 [Astro A20], device 0: USB Audio [USB Audio]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 1: A20 [Astro A20], device 1: USB Audio [USB Audio #1]
Subdevices: 0/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
For this output I ran the following to add my headset to PulseAudio. Then I used pasystray to select the headset as the default sink and I opened an application for music. Everything worked fine after that.
pactl load-module module-alsa-sink device=hw:1,1
Then to make this persist across reboots I added load-module module-alsa-sink device=hw:1,1 to /etc/pulse/default.pa.
New contributor
Ninty0n3 is a new contributor to this site. Take care in asking for clarification, commenting, and answering.
Check out our Code of Conduct.
add a comment |
My problem was similar, I have multiple devices listed in aplay -l but PulseAudio only listed my speakers pacmd list-sinks; it missed my headset.
**** List of PLAYBACK Hardware Devices ****
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 0: ALC898 Analog [ALC898 Analog]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 1: ALC898 Digital [ALC898 Digital]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 3: HDMI 0 [HDMI 0]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 7: HDMI 1 [HDMI 1]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 8: HDMI 2 [HDMI 2]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 9: HDMI 3 [HDMI 3]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 10: HDMI 4 [HDMI 4]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 1: A20 [Astro A20], device 0: USB Audio [USB Audio]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 1: A20 [Astro A20], device 1: USB Audio [USB Audio #1]
Subdevices: 0/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
For this output I ran the following to add my headset to PulseAudio. Then I used pasystray to select the headset as the default sink and I opened an application for music. Everything worked fine after that.
pactl load-module module-alsa-sink device=hw:1,1
Then to make this persist across reboots I added load-module module-alsa-sink device=hw:1,1 to /etc/pulse/default.pa.
New contributor
Ninty0n3 is a new contributor to this site. Take care in asking for clarification, commenting, and answering.
Check out our Code of Conduct.
My problem was similar, I have multiple devices listed in aplay -l but PulseAudio only listed my speakers pacmd list-sinks; it missed my headset.
**** List of PLAYBACK Hardware Devices ****
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 0: ALC898 Analog [ALC898 Analog]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 1: ALC898 Digital [ALC898 Digital]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 3: HDMI 0 [HDMI 0]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 7: HDMI 1 [HDMI 1]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 8: HDMI 2 [HDMI 2]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 9: HDMI 3 [HDMI 3]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 0: PCH [HDA Intel PCH], device 10: HDMI 4 [HDMI 4]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 1: A20 [Astro A20], device 0: USB Audio [USB Audio]
Subdevices: 1/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
card 1: A20 [Astro A20], device 1: USB Audio [USB Audio #1]
Subdevices: 0/1
Subdevice #0: subdevice #0
For this output I ran the following to add my headset to PulseAudio. Then I used pasystray to select the headset as the default sink and I opened an application for music. Everything worked fine after that.
pactl load-module module-alsa-sink device=hw:1,1
Then to make this persist across reboots I added load-module module-alsa-sink device=hw:1,1 to /etc/pulse/default.pa.
New contributor
Ninty0n3 is a new contributor to this site. Take care in asking for clarification, commenting, and answering.
Check out our Code of Conduct.
New contributor
Ninty0n3 is a new contributor to this site. Take care in asking for clarification, commenting, and answering.
Check out our Code of Conduct.
answered 4 hours ago
Ninty0n3Ninty0n3
11
11
New contributor
Ninty0n3 is a new contributor to this site. Take care in asking for clarification, commenting, and answering.
Check out our Code of Conduct.
New contributor
Ninty0n3 is a new contributor to this site. Take care in asking for clarification, commenting, and answering.
Check out our Code of Conduct.
Ninty0n3 is a new contributor to this site. Take care in asking for clarification, commenting, and answering.
Check out our Code of Conduct.
add a comment |
add a comment |
Thanks for contributing an answer to Unix & Linux Stack Exchange!
- Please be sure to answer the question. Provide details and share your research!
But avoid …
- Asking for help, clarification, or responding to other answers.
- Making statements based on opinion; back them up with references or personal experience.
To learn more, see our tips on writing great answers.
Sign up or log in
StackExchange.ready(function () {
StackExchange.helpers.onClickDraftSave('#login-link');
});
Sign up using Google
Sign up using Facebook
Sign up using Email and Password
Post as a guest
Required, but never shown
StackExchange.ready(
function () {
StackExchange.openid.initPostLogin('.new-post-login', 'https%3a%2f%2funix.stackexchange.com%2fquestions%2f223147%2fpulseaudio-list-sinks-missing-alsa-devices%23new-answer', 'question_page');
}
);
Post as a guest
Required, but never shown
Sign up or log in
StackExchange.ready(function () {
StackExchange.helpers.onClickDraftSave('#login-link');
});
Sign up using Google
Sign up using Facebook
Sign up using Email and Password
Post as a guest
Required, but never shown
Sign up or log in
StackExchange.ready(function () {
StackExchange.helpers.onClickDraftSave('#login-link');
});
Sign up using Google
Sign up using Facebook
Sign up using Email and Password
Post as a guest
Required, but never shown
Sign up or log in
StackExchange.ready(function () {
StackExchange.helpers.onClickDraftSave('#login-link');
});
Sign up using Google
Sign up using Facebook
Sign up using Email and Password
Sign up using Google
Sign up using Facebook
Sign up using Email and Password
Post as a guest
Required, but never shown
Required, but never shown
Required, but never shown
Required, but never shown
Required, but never shown
Required, but never shown
Required, but never shown
Required, but never shown
Required, but never shown